The nuclear power industry in the United States contributes 20% of the total electrical power generation with105 reactors located across the country. The table below summarizes the current status: 69 units are Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) while 36 units are Boiling Water Reactors (BWR). In addition, 10 reactors have been permanently shutdown, two of which were full size PWRs. No new reactors are currently planned. The links below will connect to manufacturers and operators of power stations. The U.S. nuclear industry maintains a complete capability to mine and enrich uranium, and fabricate fuel assemblies. Since 1977 the U.S. has selected the once though fuel cycle, with no reprocessing of spent fuel, as the national standard. Existing reprocessing facilities are not operating, therefore. Long term storage of civilian spent fuel, as well as some defense high level waste, will occur at the Department of Energy (DOE) Yucca Mountain Site in the State of Nevada. This repository is in the site characterization and research stage; the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) web site is a good place to start for further information. National RegulationRegulation of the civilian nuclear industry at the national level is the function of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). Through the NRC site you can reach maps, photos and "Plant Information Books" for each reactor site. The NRC maintains resident inspectors at the reactors and Daily Plant Status reports are sent to the NRC; these can be accessed at the NRC web site to learn of the operational status. In addition, the daily reports contain notices of all "Events", most of which are routine notes concerning potential problems. In the case of an emergency, federal law mandates connection of an "Emergency Response Data System"(ERDS) from the reactor control room direct to the NRC Operations Center. This would allow NRC experts to provide detailed oversight and advice to any emergency response effort.State RegulationEach state has local responsibility for oversight as well. State inspectors have access to the reactor sites and air radiation monitoring equipment operates continuously. Soil, water and biological samples are also taken at regular intervals. Some states, like Georgia and New Jersey, are using web sites to explain their oversight activities with diagrams, maps, and typical data. Other states issue public reports on an annual basis.Environmental RegulationAnother major safety function is carried out by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The EPA monitors radiation in the environment in a nationwide system known as Environmental Radiation Ambient Monitoring System (ERAMS). Air, water (rain, drinking and surface) and milk are all measured for radiation buildup. For example, the air monitoring network has 69 sites that sample twice weekly. The ERAMS can operate on a more frequent basis in case of an real or potential emergency. The EPA publishes quarterly reports and is in the process of making these available on the Internet.
Source: 1998 World Nuclear Industry Handbook
The map below shows the distribution of nuclear power plants in the United States, with two demonstrations of nuclear transparency. 1. A DOE nuclear site where transparency technology is being tested: the Savannah River Site in the Eastern USA map. Click on the Eastern USA to navigate through background information on Savannah River. Click here for direct routing to the Transparency Experiment at Savannah River. 2. The NRC web site also serves transparency functions. Typical of the Plant Information data is that offered for McGuire Unite 1.
The Department of Energy site at Savannah River has five shutdown reactors that were used to produce plutonium and tritium in the nuclear weapons program for more than 40 years. Currently Savannah River is being used for research on environmental restoration, technology transfer, and economic development. Technologies for nuclear transparency are also tested there. In particular, Los Alamos National Laboratory is fielding a remote access video system, known as NTVision. On April 1, 1989, Westinghouse
Savannah River Company (WSRC) became the prime operatingcontractor,
and the operation was renamed as Savannah River Site (SRS).
Site Areas and Operations
The production process began with the manufacture of fuel and target assemblies produced from a variety of nuclear and other materials such as enriched uranium and aluminum. The assemblies were transported to the reactor, where they were loaded into the reactor core and used to produce a series of controlled nuclear reactions. During the reaction,neutrons from the fuel bombarded the target assemblies to produce the desired products. The irradiated target assemblies and spent fuel assemblies then were moved to one of the chemical separations facilities—known as “canyons”—where the desired products were separated and waste products were processed. After refinement, nuclear
materials were shipped to other DOE sites for incorporation
into nuclear weapons. SRS produced about 36 metric
tons of plutonium from 1953 to 1988. SRS
has adjusted to meet declining defense requirements. All five reactors
are now shut down, a result of the end of the Cold War. However, recycling
and reloading of tritium to maintain the nation’s supply of nuclear weapons
is a continuing site mission.
Map courtesy of Savannah
River Site
Reactor AreasProduction reactors are in five areas: C, K, L, P, and R. Each area houses one of the site’s five heavy water reactors. The basis for the design of the reactors was derived in large part from experience and data generated at the Argonne National Laboratory in Argonne, Illinois. Argonne, the focal point for heavy water reactor research and development, had built and operated two such reactors by 1950. All five production reactors, (R-Reactor, P-Reactor, L-Reactor, K-Reactor, and C-Reactor) have been placed in cold shutdown. Although the areas are being used, as for moderator and fuel storage, no effort is being expended to maintain the reactors.R-Reactor achieved operating status in December 1953 and was shut down permanently in 1964. P-Reactor was started in February 1954 and was shutdown in August 1988 for maintenance. In February 1991, it was placed in cold standby and was to be used to provide spare parts for L-Reactor and K-Reactor. This potential use was eliminated by the subsequent permanent shutdown of L-Reactor and K-Reactor; therefore, P-Reactor has been shut down permanently. L-Reactor achieved operating status in August 1954 and was placed in cold standby in 1968. It was restarted in October 1985, after upgrading, and was shut down for maintenance and safety upgrades in August 1988. It was placed in warm standby in December 1991 to be put into operation as a backup to K-Reactor, if necessary, but since has been shutdown permanently. C-Reactor achieved operating status in March 1955 and was shut down in 1985 for maintenance. It was placed in cold standby in 1987, when cracking was observed in the reactor vessel. C-Reactor has been shut down permanently. K-Reactor achieved operating
status in October 1954and was shut down in August 1988 for maintenance. Initial steps to restart K-Reactor began in December 1991.
Successful power ascension testing was completed in
July 1992. Following as censiontesting, the reactor was taken offline to
allow for the tie-in of a cooling tower. The tie-in was completed, and the
operating permit was issued in December 1992. In 1993,
the cooling tower was tested; however, the reactor
was never restarted-Reactor was placed in cold standby, but the official status
was changed in 1996 to cold shutdown.
Reactor Materials AreaThe reactor materials area (M-Area) consists of a fuel and target fabrication facility, three analytical laboratories, and the Liquid Effluent Treatment Facility (LETF).The fuel fabrication facility produced fuel and target assemblies to be used in the reactors. Control rod sand other reactor components also were manufactured in the facility.The LETF treated wastewater generated by various M-Area processes and consolidated low-radioactivity residues from M-Area processes for eventual disposal.
Building 305 in M-Area is a multipurpose laboratory. It has been chosen as a test area for the remote video monitoring system developed by Los Alamos National Laboratory. This system is known as NTVision. The video monitoring system being tested here could be used in many types of nuclear facilities - reactors, material storage areas, or waste management - to show that operations appear to be normal, and hence, are probably safe. In designing a video-based transparency system consideration must be given to ensuring that sensitive security information is not revealed in the video frame. Also, explanatory information should tell the viewer what is in the field of view. That is, the viewer needs to know what "normal" is in order to gain an understanding that the facility is operating normally and safely. The video system can be combined with other sensors to record images based on doors opening, radiation or temperature levels changing, or a variety of other circumstances. For more information, explore other options in the System Description sections of this web site. To see video images of interior of Building 305 click here.
Instructions for using the NTVision site. In order to appreciate the
information available at the Los Alamos NTVision web site, you may wish
to print the following hints.
Click here to start the NTVision demonstration. (http://ntv305a.srs.gov) For fast access click here to view screen capture of April 14th, 1999 NTVision demonstration. |
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Maine
Yankee
Peach Bottom
